Confederation of British North America (Canada) was a union that brought together the British North American colonies of Nova Scotia, Brunswick and Canada, which consisted of East Canada (Quebec), and West Canada (Ontario). This confederation was achieved on first of July in 1867 and named the Dominion of Canada. It later expanded to include the North West Territory and Manitoba, British Colombia, Prince Edwards Island (the Maritimes) and eventually Newfoundland (Barman 156). Formation of this confederation however only came into being after overcoming of certain things. The colonies faced many pressures (both political and economic) compelling them to consider a federal union as a possible way of addressing these pressures as well as conflicts. The Confederation was in the form of an Act which sought to balance the forces that threatened to tear the Old Province of Canada apart with those that sought top push all the provinces together (Ged 24-45).
This act had three basic elements it pushed for division of power between the provinces and the federal parliament. It also gave the Governor General in Council the power not to allow any provincial law within a year after receiving a copy of the legislation. Thirdly, the act provided for the parliament to assume any of those powers that had not specifically been allocated (Buckner 21-25). The parliament was also given the power to act for peace, as well as order and good government. The provinces therefore had secure power over some crucial areas including education. Provinces such as Quebec were allowed to maintain their civil laws and distinctiveness was recognized.
The federal government however retained the overall power. Although Confederation provided a solution to most of these problems, not all the involved colonies perceived it to be popular. Though most of the colonists in the region were pleased and hopeful that the Confederation would bring a prosperous future, others were annoyed and doubtful. This paper seeks to evaluate those who opposed the Confederation and their reasons for rejection of the Confederation. The paper will also discuss how these colonies eventually agreed to join the confederation.
Nova Scotia though one of the first three colonies to propose a Confederation had its opposition leaders opposing this proposal. When it delegates including Charles Tupper returned home after the Quebec Confederation, they encountered problems with the opposition leaders and Joseph Howe in particular who was stirring the colony against a united Canada. These leaders were particularly opposed to one of the seventy resolutions of the Confederation that mandated the central government to give financial support to each of the provinces based on population every year (Waite and Ged 57-61). Nova Scotia had a relatively smaller population as compared to other provinces such as Ontario and Quebec and going by this resolution, its portion amounted to only 40 cents per person (Pryke 38-41).
Since Nova Scotia was to be taxed just like the other provinces the opposition leaders found this resolution to be unfair. The opposers led by Joseph Howe opposed this agreement accusing Tupper of selling the Nova Scotia out to central Canada for the price of a sheepskin (just forty cents per person). They also feared that the Canadians (Ontario and Quebec) would dominate the new centralized government because they were large and had larger populations hence could use their power to benefit themselves at the expense of the Maritimes (Douglas 63-67).
Nova Scotias ties with the United States were also very strong. This is because the province traded a lot with the US. The United States seemed to be a more beneficial than the Confederation (Pryke 38-41).
Joining the US seemed to be a more attractive possibility to those who doubted the Confederation.
Tuper decided that he would not introduce the seventy-two resolutions Nova Scotias assembly as it would suffer defeat because of the overwhelming support that Joseph had. He opted to take time before introducing these resolutions and meanwhile worked hard to destroy the arguments of those opposed to the Confederation. The colonists in Nova Scotia were however divided as it was not clear to them whether a Confederation would be beneficial or a disadvantage to their future (Waite and Ged 65-68). Moreover, News that New Bruswick faced a Fenian threat instilled fear among Nova Scotians as they thought that Nova Scotia might also be invaded. Nova Scotia wanted a better deal from Ottawa before it could join the Union.
The main reason as to why Nova Scotia opposed the Confederation was the 72 resolutions that were quite unfair. Granting each person forty cents yet they are paying the same amount of tax as those in Quebec or Ontario is unrealistic. They perceived this amount to be too little as there was is nothing much one could do with forty cents. The fact that other provinces were receiving higher grants made the confederation appear to be unequal (Smith 4-6). Fear that Quebec and Ontario would dominate the new government is also valid. According to the resolutions, grants including positions were based on population. The large populations of the two Canada provinces implied that they would have more representatives hence more control when it came to decision making. It is obvious that they would make decisions that favored their provinces leaving smaller provinces such as Nova Scotia unrepresented. Based on this, it can be argued that the reasons the opposers in Nova Scotia had against the Confederation were valid. The Confederation seemed to present inequality and misrepresentation which would make Nova Scotia suffer.
In spite of these oppositions, Nova Scotia still joined the Confederation eventually. Tupper achieved this by suggesting that all delegates representing all the provinces to meet in London and work out a plan that would address all the concerns raised hence satisfy everyone (Douglas and Smith 23-27). Joseph Howe still carried on with his campaign against the Confederation during the time when the delegation was in London. The Confederation was however passed and Nova Scotia joined the union without calling for an election that put the seventy-two resolutions to a vote. The Nova Scotians never had a chance to vote and decide whether they wanted to join the Confederation. Passing of the 72 resolutions without calling for an election that put them to vote kind of forced these colonists in Confederation.
New Brunswick also had those opposed to the Confederation. Unlike Nova Scotia, Leonard Tilley, New Brunswicks Premier called for an election after the Quebec Conference and put the seventy-two resolutions to vote. The anti-Confederationalists however won. They complained about the amount of subsidy from the central government they were to receive annually which amounted to 80 cents per person was too little (Buckner and Reid 57-64). Just like Nova Scotia, they also felt that by agreeing to the 72 resolutions, their Premier was selling them to the Canadians just for 80 cents each, a very small amount indeed. The results of the elections were a blow to those who supported the Confederation. New Brunswick was crucial to the success of the Confederation as it linked Canada (Quebec and Ontario) to the other Atlantic colonies. Without New Brunswicks support, the Confederation could not exist (Buckner and Reid 57-64).
Tilleys efforts eventually made Confederation to happen in New Brunswick. After conceding defeat in the election, he did not give up. He visited each part of the colony campaigning for the Confederation. His honesty, sincerity and personal efforts on the subject helped win New Brunswickers over.
Three other different events also played a major part in convincing New Brunswick that Confederation was the only the province could progress. First, the US stopped the free trade it initially had with the British North American colonies. New Brunswicks goods could not enter the United States market tax-free. The Americans were revenging Britains support, though unofficial of the South during the American civil war (McNally 93). The second event was the message from the British government that encouraged New Brunswickers to join the Confederation (Richey 9-12). The third event was the 1866 Fenian attack of the New Brunswick that terrified people. An election was called even before the Fenian threat had been eliminated. This time round, New Brunswickers voted in favor of the Confederation and joined the union led by Leonard Tilley.
In Prince Edward Island (PEI), the Confederation had no popularity at all. they had a myriad of reasons for rejecting the Confederation. First, they objected paying more taxes that were intended to construct the Intercolonial railway which they perceived to be useless to them as it could not possibly run on the Island (Arsenault 25-28).They wanted a railway line that joined various places within their province yet the Quebec conference had not mentioned any of that. In this aspect, they perceived the Confederation not to be of any benefit to them as a province.
The other reason for rejection of Confederation in PEI was the utter size of the proposed new country (Buckner and Reid 61-77). PEI was a small island and the people feared being swamped in the large union. Because of the Islands small population, representation, which was based on population, gave them only five representatives out of the total 194. The Islanders felt that this was loss of power to Ottawa, which was also far away (Buckner and Reid 61-77). The small number of representatives caused fear that their interests and needs would not be addressed, as their voices would be too few to be heard. They feared that the larger provinces, which had more representatives, would dominate the new government.
PEI also wanted the Confederation to buy out absentee landlords who had land on the island. The resolutions however failed to mention this (Waite and Ged 98-101). This was however agreed in the last minute when it was clear that PEI was not going to join Confederation. A last minute promise which suggested that land would be bought for the Island from the landlords by Canada for 800 000 was made. This was however too late as the Islanders had already made up their minds not to join the union. In an election that was called in December of 1864, the Islanders rejected Confederation (Waite and Ged 98-101).
In the late 1860s, PEI was considered the various options it had which included the a separate dominion and entertaining the US delegations that who sought to have the island join the United States of America (Buckner and Reid 61-77).
PEI later entered Confederation in July 1873 after the Federal Government of Canada agreed to assume the Islands huge railway debts (PEI had began to build a railway to connect its regions in 1871) and to finance a buy out of all of the remaining absentee landlords of the colony. This freed PEI of leasehold tenure as well as from any new migrants coming to the island (Weale and Baglole 112-121).
Newfoundland is the colony that opposed Confederation for the longest time as it only joined the Confederation more than eight decades later in 1949. Though the colony sent two delegates to the Quebec conference, they did not find any support for joining Confederation when they returned home as Newfoundlanders took pride in their historic ties with Great Britain and were not willing to be united with rest of the colonies (Cadigan 59-71).
They also feared heavy taxes that a union with the other provinces presented. A wealthy merchant who argued that the new government would impose heavy taxes on everything led the fight against Confederation (Waite and Ged75-81). He also warned that Newfoundland products would be replaced by cheap goods from Canada. He also added that entering the union would force Newfoundland to defend Canada in the event it was attacked by the United States. Newfoundland was so opposed to Confederation that the night it was defeated, a huge parade matched through the streets of St. Johns with a coffin that was labeled Confederation, which was then buried, and a fake funeral held. Therefore, the Confederation issue died and only came to resurrect eighty-two years later.
Newfoundland agreed to join Confederation in 1949 after the Second World War left it in an economic and financial crisis. The colony could not get any financial support from Britain which was not eager to support it anymore. Since the colony could not manage as an independent country, it considered two options, joining the United States or Canada. The referendum to join the USA was defeated. Against Catholics objections, Newfoundland finally joined Confederation after Canada agreed to help it financially and to reconstruct its infrastructure including roads and railways (DeMont 18).
In Quebec (Canada East), the French were opposed Confederation for various reasons. A. A. Dorion complained that out of the 32 delegates at the Conference, only were French-speaking and the discussions had not considered this fact as they were entirely held in English. French Quebec opposed Confederation as it argued that a union would make it a part of a much larger country that was English-speaking making them a minority as they would be outnumbered (Newman 1). However, the Confederation was supported by conservatives, the dominant political group in the colony which was led by George Ettienne Cartier, a staunch supporter of Confederation who worked closely with Macdonald (from Canada West) to achieve the union (Bonenfant 8-11). He had the needed support of the Catholic Church (McNally 93). He convinced the French-speaking people that a provincial government would ensure that they kept their provincial identity (the provinces capital would once again be Qubec and that they would keep their own culture and language (Bonenfant 13-19). He also encouraged them that the fear of Anglophone dominating Ottawa would be alleviated by the strong representation of French Canadian in the Federal government. He also warned that refusal to confederation would make Canada East Vulnerable to invasion by the United States (McNally 93). Cartier was trusted by the Canada East people and garnered supported. When the election came, most of the French-speaking members of the Assembly voted in favor of the Confederation.
The Confederation did not receive much opposition in Ontario (Canada west) because most people thought it was good for business (Ibbitson 40). However, farmers strongly opposed it was perceived that Confederation would result to higher taxes (Kuper 24-26). The opposition was not significant as the combined assembly for both Ontario and Quebec voted in favor of confederation with a vote of 91 to 31.
Though Confederation was ultimately achieved, it did not come easy. A lot of convincing had to be done to clear the doubts and fears of those opposed to the union. In most cases however, people did not vote for Confederation because they were comfortable with its seventy-two resolutions. Most feared invasion from the United States which threatened to take over. Most of the colonies joined Confederation for security (economic, social and political).
This act had three basic elements it pushed for division of power between the provinces and the federal parliament. It also gave the Governor General in Council the power not to allow any provincial law within a year after receiving a copy of the legislation. Thirdly, the act provided for the parliament to assume any of those powers that had not specifically been allocated (Buckner 21-25). The parliament was also given the power to act for peace, as well as order and good government. The provinces therefore had secure power over some crucial areas including education. Provinces such as Quebec were allowed to maintain their civil laws and distinctiveness was recognized.
The federal government however retained the overall power. Although Confederation provided a solution to most of these problems, not all the involved colonies perceived it to be popular. Though most of the colonists in the region were pleased and hopeful that the Confederation would bring a prosperous future, others were annoyed and doubtful. This paper seeks to evaluate those who opposed the Confederation and their reasons for rejection of the Confederation. The paper will also discuss how these colonies eventually agreed to join the confederation.
Nova Scotia though one of the first three colonies to propose a Confederation had its opposition leaders opposing this proposal. When it delegates including Charles Tupper returned home after the Quebec Confederation, they encountered problems with the opposition leaders and Joseph Howe in particular who was stirring the colony against a united Canada. These leaders were particularly opposed to one of the seventy resolutions of the Confederation that mandated the central government to give financial support to each of the provinces based on population every year (Waite and Ged 57-61). Nova Scotia had a relatively smaller population as compared to other provinces such as Ontario and Quebec and going by this resolution, its portion amounted to only 40 cents per person (Pryke 38-41).
Since Nova Scotia was to be taxed just like the other provinces the opposition leaders found this resolution to be unfair. The opposers led by Joseph Howe opposed this agreement accusing Tupper of selling the Nova Scotia out to central Canada for the price of a sheepskin (just forty cents per person). They also feared that the Canadians (Ontario and Quebec) would dominate the new centralized government because they were large and had larger populations hence could use their power to benefit themselves at the expense of the Maritimes (Douglas 63-67).
Nova Scotias ties with the United States were also very strong. This is because the province traded a lot with the US. The United States seemed to be a more beneficial than the Confederation (Pryke 38-41).
Joining the US seemed to be a more attractive possibility to those who doubted the Confederation.
Tuper decided that he would not introduce the seventy-two resolutions Nova Scotias assembly as it would suffer defeat because of the overwhelming support that Joseph had. He opted to take time before introducing these resolutions and meanwhile worked hard to destroy the arguments of those opposed to the Confederation. The colonists in Nova Scotia were however divided as it was not clear to them whether a Confederation would be beneficial or a disadvantage to their future (Waite and Ged 65-68). Moreover, News that New Bruswick faced a Fenian threat instilled fear among Nova Scotians as they thought that Nova Scotia might also be invaded. Nova Scotia wanted a better deal from Ottawa before it could join the Union.
The main reason as to why Nova Scotia opposed the Confederation was the 72 resolutions that were quite unfair. Granting each person forty cents yet they are paying the same amount of tax as those in Quebec or Ontario is unrealistic. They perceived this amount to be too little as there was is nothing much one could do with forty cents. The fact that other provinces were receiving higher grants made the confederation appear to be unequal (Smith 4-6). Fear that Quebec and Ontario would dominate the new government is also valid. According to the resolutions, grants including positions were based on population. The large populations of the two Canada provinces implied that they would have more representatives hence more control when it came to decision making. It is obvious that they would make decisions that favored their provinces leaving smaller provinces such as Nova Scotia unrepresented. Based on this, it can be argued that the reasons the opposers in Nova Scotia had against the Confederation were valid. The Confederation seemed to present inequality and misrepresentation which would make Nova Scotia suffer.
In spite of these oppositions, Nova Scotia still joined the Confederation eventually. Tupper achieved this by suggesting that all delegates representing all the provinces to meet in London and work out a plan that would address all the concerns raised hence satisfy everyone (Douglas and Smith 23-27). Joseph Howe still carried on with his campaign against the Confederation during the time when the delegation was in London. The Confederation was however passed and Nova Scotia joined the union without calling for an election that put the seventy-two resolutions to a vote. The Nova Scotians never had a chance to vote and decide whether they wanted to join the Confederation. Passing of the 72 resolutions without calling for an election that put them to vote kind of forced these colonists in Confederation.
New Brunswick also had those opposed to the Confederation. Unlike Nova Scotia, Leonard Tilley, New Brunswicks Premier called for an election after the Quebec Conference and put the seventy-two resolutions to vote. The anti-Confederationalists however won. They complained about the amount of subsidy from the central government they were to receive annually which amounted to 80 cents per person was too little (Buckner and Reid 57-64). Just like Nova Scotia, they also felt that by agreeing to the 72 resolutions, their Premier was selling them to the Canadians just for 80 cents each, a very small amount indeed. The results of the elections were a blow to those who supported the Confederation. New Brunswick was crucial to the success of the Confederation as it linked Canada (Quebec and Ontario) to the other Atlantic colonies. Without New Brunswicks support, the Confederation could not exist (Buckner and Reid 57-64).
Tilleys efforts eventually made Confederation to happen in New Brunswick. After conceding defeat in the election, he did not give up. He visited each part of the colony campaigning for the Confederation. His honesty, sincerity and personal efforts on the subject helped win New Brunswickers over.
Three other different events also played a major part in convincing New Brunswick that Confederation was the only the province could progress. First, the US stopped the free trade it initially had with the British North American colonies. New Brunswicks goods could not enter the United States market tax-free. The Americans were revenging Britains support, though unofficial of the South during the American civil war (McNally 93). The second event was the message from the British government that encouraged New Brunswickers to join the Confederation (Richey 9-12). The third event was the 1866 Fenian attack of the New Brunswick that terrified people. An election was called even before the Fenian threat had been eliminated. This time round, New Brunswickers voted in favor of the Confederation and joined the union led by Leonard Tilley.
In Prince Edward Island (PEI), the Confederation had no popularity at all. they had a myriad of reasons for rejecting the Confederation. First, they objected paying more taxes that were intended to construct the Intercolonial railway which they perceived to be useless to them as it could not possibly run on the Island (Arsenault 25-28).They wanted a railway line that joined various places within their province yet the Quebec conference had not mentioned any of that. In this aspect, they perceived the Confederation not to be of any benefit to them as a province.
The other reason for rejection of Confederation in PEI was the utter size of the proposed new country (Buckner and Reid 61-77). PEI was a small island and the people feared being swamped in the large union. Because of the Islands small population, representation, which was based on population, gave them only five representatives out of the total 194. The Islanders felt that this was loss of power to Ottawa, which was also far away (Buckner and Reid 61-77). The small number of representatives caused fear that their interests and needs would not be addressed, as their voices would be too few to be heard. They feared that the larger provinces, which had more representatives, would dominate the new government.
PEI also wanted the Confederation to buy out absentee landlords who had land on the island. The resolutions however failed to mention this (Waite and Ged 98-101). This was however agreed in the last minute when it was clear that PEI was not going to join Confederation. A last minute promise which suggested that land would be bought for the Island from the landlords by Canada for 800 000 was made. This was however too late as the Islanders had already made up their minds not to join the union. In an election that was called in December of 1864, the Islanders rejected Confederation (Waite and Ged 98-101).
In the late 1860s, PEI was considered the various options it had which included the a separate dominion and entertaining the US delegations that who sought to have the island join the United States of America (Buckner and Reid 61-77).
PEI later entered Confederation in July 1873 after the Federal Government of Canada agreed to assume the Islands huge railway debts (PEI had began to build a railway to connect its regions in 1871) and to finance a buy out of all of the remaining absentee landlords of the colony. This freed PEI of leasehold tenure as well as from any new migrants coming to the island (Weale and Baglole 112-121).
Newfoundland is the colony that opposed Confederation for the longest time as it only joined the Confederation more than eight decades later in 1949. Though the colony sent two delegates to the Quebec conference, they did not find any support for joining Confederation when they returned home as Newfoundlanders took pride in their historic ties with Great Britain and were not willing to be united with rest of the colonies (Cadigan 59-71).
They also feared heavy taxes that a union with the other provinces presented. A wealthy merchant who argued that the new government would impose heavy taxes on everything led the fight against Confederation (Waite and Ged75-81). He also warned that Newfoundland products would be replaced by cheap goods from Canada. He also added that entering the union would force Newfoundland to defend Canada in the event it was attacked by the United States. Newfoundland was so opposed to Confederation that the night it was defeated, a huge parade matched through the streets of St. Johns with a coffin that was labeled Confederation, which was then buried, and a fake funeral held. Therefore, the Confederation issue died and only came to resurrect eighty-two years later.
Newfoundland agreed to join Confederation in 1949 after the Second World War left it in an economic and financial crisis. The colony could not get any financial support from Britain which was not eager to support it anymore. Since the colony could not manage as an independent country, it considered two options, joining the United States or Canada. The referendum to join the USA was defeated. Against Catholics objections, Newfoundland finally joined Confederation after Canada agreed to help it financially and to reconstruct its infrastructure including roads and railways (DeMont 18).
In Quebec (Canada East), the French were opposed Confederation for various reasons. A. A. Dorion complained that out of the 32 delegates at the Conference, only were French-speaking and the discussions had not considered this fact as they were entirely held in English. French Quebec opposed Confederation as it argued that a union would make it a part of a much larger country that was English-speaking making them a minority as they would be outnumbered (Newman 1). However, the Confederation was supported by conservatives, the dominant political group in the colony which was led by George Ettienne Cartier, a staunch supporter of Confederation who worked closely with Macdonald (from Canada West) to achieve the union (Bonenfant 8-11). He had the needed support of the Catholic Church (McNally 93). He convinced the French-speaking people that a provincial government would ensure that they kept their provincial identity (the provinces capital would once again be Qubec and that they would keep their own culture and language (Bonenfant 13-19). He also encouraged them that the fear of Anglophone dominating Ottawa would be alleviated by the strong representation of French Canadian in the Federal government. He also warned that refusal to confederation would make Canada East Vulnerable to invasion by the United States (McNally 93). Cartier was trusted by the Canada East people and garnered supported. When the election came, most of the French-speaking members of the Assembly voted in favor of the Confederation.
The Confederation did not receive much opposition in Ontario (Canada west) because most people thought it was good for business (Ibbitson 40). However, farmers strongly opposed it was perceived that Confederation would result to higher taxes (Kuper 24-26). The opposition was not significant as the combined assembly for both Ontario and Quebec voted in favor of confederation with a vote of 91 to 31.
Though Confederation was ultimately achieved, it did not come easy. A lot of convincing had to be done to clear the doubts and fears of those opposed to the union. In most cases however, people did not vote for Confederation because they were comfortable with its seventy-two resolutions. Most feared invasion from the United States which threatened to take over. Most of the colonies joined Confederation for security (economic, social and political).
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